Methods and apparatus for incomplete modular arithmetic

ABSTRACT

Methods and apparatus for modular arithmetic operations with respect to a modulus p include representing operands as a series of s w-bit numbers, wherein  
       s   =       ⌈     k   w     ⌉     .                   
 
     Operations are executed word by word and a carry, borrow, or other bit or word is obtained from operations on most significant words of the operands. Depending on the value of this bit or word, an operation-specific correction factor is applied. Cryptographic systems include computer executable instructions for such methods. Bit-level operations are generally avoided and the methods and apparatus are applicable to systems based on, for example, public-key cryptographic algorithms defined over the finite field CF(p).

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

[0001] The invention pertains to modular arithmetic and cryptographic systems and methods using modular arithmetic.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

[0002] The basic arithmetic operations (i.e., addition, subtraction, and multiplication) in the prime finite field GF(p) have numerous applications in cryptography, such as decipherment in RSA systems, Diffie-Hellman key exchange, elliptic curve cryptography, the Digital Signature Standard (DSS), and the elliptic curve digital signature algorithm (ECDSA). These applications demand high-speed software and hardware implementations of the arithmetic operations in the field GF(p), typically for p in a range such that 160≦┌log₂(p)┐≦2048. Improved methods and apparatus are needed for these and other applications.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

[0003] Methods of performing modular arithmetic with respect to a modulus p are provided that include representing operands A, B as respective series of s w-bit words. At least one arithmetic operation selected from the group consisting of addition, subtraction, and multiplication is performed based on the series of words of the operands to obtain an intermediate result. The intermediate result is then processed so that a corrected result C is obtained, wherein C is less than or equal to p−1 and greater than or equal to 0. In representative embodiments, a set of incompletely reduced numbers is defined based on the word size w and the modulus p and the arithmetic operation is performed so that the intermediate values used to obtain the result C are incompletely reduced numbers.

[0004] Modular addition methods are provided that include representing a first operand and a second operand as a first and a second series of words, respectively, wherein the first and the second operands have the same or different values. A series of word additions is performed between corresponding words of the first and second operands to obtain a first intermediate sum. A carry value associated with a sum of most significant words of the operands is evaluated and a correction factor for addition is added to the first intermediate sum if the carry value is one, thereby producing a second intermediate sum. According to representative embodiments, the correction factor for addition is represented as a series of words, and the step of adding the correction factor to the first intermediate sum is performed word by word. In further embodiments, the correction factor for addition is F=2^(m)−Ip, wherein m is a number of bits in s w-bit words that represent the operands, and I is a largest integer such that F is between 1 and p−1. According to additional methods, a carry value associated with a sum of most significant words of the first intermediate sum and the correction factor is evaluated and the correction factor for addition is added to the second intermediate sum if the carry value is one.

[0005] Methods for modular subtraction with respect to a modulus p are provided that include representing a first operand and a second operand as a first and a second series of words, respectively, wherein the first and the second operands have the same or different values. A series of word subtractions between corresponding words of the first and second operands is performed to obtain a first intermediate difference. A borrow value associated with a difference of most significant words of the operands is evaluated, and based on the evaluation, a correction factor for subtraction is summed with the first intermediate difference to produce a second intermediate difference. According to representative examples, the correction factor for subtraction is G=Jp−2^(m), wherein is a maximum number of bits used to represent an operand and J is a smallest integer such that G is between 1 and p−1.

[0006] Methods of Montgomery multiplication are provided that include representing a first operand and a second operand as a first series and a second series of s w-bit words, respectively and selecting a Montgomery radix R=2^(sw). Corresponding words of the first and second operands are multiplied to form word products and the word products are processed to obtain a Montgomery product.

[0007] Transaction servers are provided that include inputs configured to receive an authentication code and a processor configured to receive and confirm the authentication code, the processor including a word-wise, incomplete modular arithmetic module. According to representative examples, the arithmetic module includes computer executable instructions stored in a computer readable medium. In other examples, the processor is configured to process words of length w, and the arithmetic module is configured based on the word length w. In additional examples, the arithmetic module is configured to perform arithmetic modulo a prime number p and the arithmetic module is configured to process operands represented as s w-bit words, wherein $s = \left\lceil \frac{k}{w} \right\rceil$

[0008] and k=┌log₂p┐. According to further embodiments, the arithmetic module includes memory configured for storage of a correction factor for addition.

[0009] Cryptographic systems are provided that include a processor having a a word-wise, incomplete-number arithmetic processor. According to example embodiments, the arithmetic processor is configured to process a cryptographic parameter using addition, subtraction, or Montgomery multiplication based on a modulus p, wherein p is a prime number.

[0010] Methods of processing a security parameter with respect to a modulus p include representing the security parameter as a series of s w-bit words and processing the security parameter word by word to produce a processed value, wherein the processed value is between 0 and 2^(sw)−1. An output is produced by combining the processed value with a correction factor.

[0011] Methods of processing a cryptographic parameter include selecting a word length w and a modulus p, and representing the cryptographic parameter as a series of s w-bit words, wherein $s = {\left\lceil \frac{k}{w} \right\rceil.}$

[0012] The cryptographic parameter is processed word by word to produce an intermediate result, wherein the intermediate result is an incompletely reduced number.

[0013] These and other embodiments and features of the invention are described below with reference to the accompanying drawing.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

[0014]FIG. 1 is a block diagram of a transaction processor that performs customer authentication and includes a word-wise arithmetic processor based on incompletely reduced numbers.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

[0015] Arithmetic in the field GF(p) is referred to as modular arithmetic with respect to a prime modulus p. The elements of the field GF(p) can be represented as members of the set of integers {0, 1, . . . , (p−1)}, and the field GF(p) is closed with respect to the arithmetic operations of addition, subtraction, and multiplication. In many applications, the modulus p is represented as a k-bit binary number, wherein k is in the range [160, 2048]. The prime number p can be represented as an array of words, wherein each word includes w-bits. In many software implementations w=32, but w can be 8 or 16 for 8-bit or 16-bit microprocessors, respectively, but longer word lengths can be used.

[0016] Scalable methods are methods in which values of the prime modulus p and a corresponding bit length k are unrestricted. In addition, scalable methods generally do not limit the modulus p to a special form as some prime-number-specific methods require. The bit-length k of the modulus p need not be an integer multiple of the processor wordsize.

[0017] As used herein to describe representative methods, k, u, s, and m are defined as follows: k=┌log₂p┐ is a number of bits required to represent the prime modulus p; w is a word size; $s = \left\lceil \frac{k}{w} \right\rceil$

[0018] is a number of words used to represent the prime modulus p; and m=sw is a total number of bits in s words.

[0019] For purposes of illustration, numbers are conveniently represented as unsigned binary numbers and two's complement arithmetic is used. An element A of the field GF(p) can be represented as s words of unsigned binary integers such that A=(A_(s-1)A_(s-2) . . . A₁A₀), wherein words A_(i) for i=0, 1, . . . , (s−1) include w-bit unsigned binary numbers. A_(s-1) is a most significant word (MSW) of A and A₀ is a least significant word (LSW) of A. A bit-level representation of A is A=(a_(k-1)a_(k-2) . . . a₁a₀). A most significant bit (MSB) of A is a_(k-1) and a least significant bit (LSB) of A is a₀. If k is not an integer multiple of w, then k=(s−1)w+u, wherein u<w is a positive integer, and only the least significant u bits of the MSW (A_(s-1)) are needed. The most significant (w−u) bits are not needed for storing the k bits of p and these bits can be assigned zero value. This representation of the element A is summarized in Table 1. TABLE 1 Representation of an element A of the field GF(p) with s w-bit words. A_(s−1) A_(s−2) . . . A₁ A₀ $\underset{\underset{w - u}{}}{0\quad \ldots \quad 0}\quad a_{{{({s - 1})}w} + u - 1}\quad \ldots \quad a_{{({s - 1})}w}$

a_((s−1)w−1) . . . a_((s−2)w) . . . a_(2w−1) . . . a_(w) a_(w−1) . . . a₀

[0020] While the representation of the field element A of Table 1 can be used for execution of bit-level arithmetic operations in the field GF(p), such bit-level operations are generally slow and inefficient. Faster execution can be obtained based on word-level operations using incomplete modular arithmetic as illustrated below. For purposes of explanation, completely reduced numbers, partially reduced numbers, and unreduced numbers in the field GF(p) are defined as follows. Completely reduced numbers are numbers ranging from 0 to (p−1) and a set C of completely reduced numbers is the set C={0, 1, . . . (p−1)}. Incompletely reduced numbers are numbers ranging from 0 to (2^(m)−1) and a set I of incompletely reduced numbers is the set I={0, 1, . . . , p−1,p, p+1, . . . , (2^(m)−1)}. Unreduced numbers are numbers ranging from p to (2^(m)−1) and a set U of unreduced numbers is the set U={p, p+1, . . . , (2^(m)−1)}. These sets are related as C⊂I, U⊂I, and U=I−C.

[0021] For A∈C there typically are one or more associated incompletely reduced numbers B∈I such that A=B (mod p). The incompletely reduced number(s) B can be converted to the completely reduced number A by subtracting integer multiples of p from B. Arithmetic operations can be performed with B instead of A. The elements of the set I use all bits of the s words (i.e., completely occupy the s words) as shown in Table 2. TABLE 2 Representation of incompletely reduced numbers as s w-bit words. B_(s−1) B_(s−2) . . . B₁ B₀ b_(sw−1) . . . b_((s−1)w) b_((s−1)w−1) . . . b_((s−2)w) . . . b_(2w−1) . . . b_(w) b_(w−1) . . . b₀

[0022] Arithmetic operations performed based on incompletely reduced numbers can avoid bit-level operations on the MSW. Word-level operations can be performed and checks for carry bits performed at word boundaries, not within words. In addition, reductions by p can be avoided until an output is needed that is in the set C.

[0023] Implementation of the subtraction operation requires a representation of negative numbers and positive numbers. A least positive residues representation can be used that permits representation of positive and negative numbers modulo-p. In such a representation, numbers remain positive. For example, if the result of a subtraction operation is a negative number, then the negative result is converted to a positive number by adding p. For example, for p=7, the operation s=3−4 is performed as s=3−4+7=6. The numbers from 0 to (p−1)/2 can be interpreted as positive numbers modulo-p, while the numbers from (p−1)/2+1 to p−1 can be interpreted as negative numbers modulo-p.

[0024] As a specific example of the representation described above, let the prime modulus p=11=(1011) and a word size w=3 bits. Then k=4 bits and s=┌k/w┐=┌4/3┐=2 words so that m=2·3=6 bits. The completely reduced set C={0, 1, . . . , 9, 10} and the incompletely reduced set I={0, 1, . . . , 62, 63}. Incompletely reduced numbers occupy 2 words as A=(A₁A₀)=(a₅a₄a₃ a₂a₁a₀). For example, the decimal number 44 is represented as (101 100) in binary or (5 4) in octal. An incompletely reduced number (or numbers) B associated with a number A is obtained as B=A+i·p, wherein B is in the range [0, 63] and i is a positive integer. For example, if A=5, then associated incompletely reduced numbers are {5, 16, 27, 38, 49, 60}. The incompletely reduced representation is redundant and is denoted as, for example, {overscore (5)}={5, 16, 27, 38, 49, 60} to represent the residue class {overscore (5)}. In general, {overscore (A)} is referred to as the residue class of A.

[0025] Cryptographic methods and apparatus are described that include arithmetic operations based on incompletely reduced numbers. Representative methods are described below.

Modular Addition of Incompletely Reduced Numbers

[0026] Incompletely reduced numbers can be as large as 2^(m)−1 and some reduction operations are typically avoided because numbers are not restricted to the range [0,p−1]. For example, elements A, B of GF(p) are added to produce a sum X, such that X:=A+B (mod p). If X does not exceed 2^(m), no reduction is performed. Reduction is performed if there is a non-zero carry-out from addition of the MSWs of A and B. For convenience, the notation (c, Si) is defined as

(c,S _(i)):=A _(i) +B _(i) +c  (1)

[0027] and indicates a word-level addition operation that adds one-word numbers A_(i) and B_(i) and a one-bit carry-in c to produce a one-bit carry-out c and a one-word sum S_(i). (The one-bit carry c is referred to as both a carry-out and a carry-in.) A representative addition method is summarized in Table 3. TABLE 3 Modular addition using incomplete numbers. Inputs: A = (A_(s−1) . . . A₁A₀) and B = (B_(s−1) . . . B₁B₀) Auxiliary: F = (F_(s−1) . . . F₁F₀) Output: X = (X_(s−1) . . . X₁X₀) Step 1: c := 0 Step 2: for i = 0 to s − 1 Step 3: (c, S_(i)) := A_(i) + B_(i) + c Step 4: if c = 0 then return X = (S_(s−1) . . . S₁S₀) Step 5: c := 0 Step 6: for i = 0 to s − 1 Step 7: (c, T_(i)) := S_(i) + F_(i) +c Step 8: if c = 0 then return X = (T_(s−1) . . . T₁T₀) Step 9: c := 0 Step 10: for i = 0 to s − 1 Step 11: (c, U_(i)) := T_(i) + F_(i) + c Step 12: return X = (U_(s−1) . . . U₁U₀)

[0028] If the carry-out c from the addition of the MSWs of A and B is zero, then Step 4 of Table 3 produces the correct sum as X=S=(S_(s-1) . . . S₁S₀). If the carry-out c=1, then the carry-out is initially disregarded to obtain S:=S−2^(m) and then S is corrected in steps 5-8. In modulo-p arithmetic, integer multiples of p can be added or subtracted to numbers without changing values computed modulo-p. Accordingly, S is corrected as T:=(S−2^(m))+F, wherein F=(F_(s-1) . . . F₁F₀) is called a correction factor for addition and is defined as

F=2^(m)−Ip,  (2)

[0029] wherein I is largest integer that brings F into the range [1, p−1], i.e., I=└2^(m)/p┘. F is precomputed and saved. By performing the operation T:=(S−2^(m))+F, a modulo-p reduction is performed as

T:=(S−2^(m))+F=S−2^(m)+2^(m) −Ip=S−Ip.  (3)

[0030] Thus, the result X=T is correct modulo-p after Step 8. However, the operation T:=S+F can cause a carry-out from the MSWs of S and T. The input operands A and B are arbitrary numbers and can be as large as 2^(m)−1, so that a maximum sum S=2^(m+1)−2. By ignoring the carry-out c of Step 3, S=2^(m)−2 is obtained. Therefore, the computation T:=S+F in Step 7 can produce T that is greater than 2^(m) and an additional correction can be performed in Steps 9-11. After Step 11, the maximum value of U is less than 2^(m) and the carry-out c=0. This is summarized as follows:

U=(T−2^(m))+F=2^(m)−2−2^(m) +F=−2+F≦−2+p−1<2^(m).  (4)

[0031] Thus, corrections are applied as needed, and the sum is returned as a completely reduced number.

ADDITION EXAMPLES

[0032] Let p=11, k=4, w=3, m=6, s=2, so that

F=2^(m)−└2^(m) /p┘·p=64−└2⁶/11 ┘·11=64−5·11=9.  (5)

[0033] The addition of {overscore (4)}={4, 15, 26, 37, 48, 59} and {overscore (5)}={5, 16, 27, 38, 49, 60} is illustrated using, for example, the incompletely reduced numbers 26 and 27. $\begin{matrix} {S = {26 + 27}} & \quad \\ {= 53} & \left( {c = {0\quad {so}\quad {Step}\quad 4\quad {returns}\quad {sum}}} \right) \end{matrix}$

[0034] Because c=0 at Step 4, no correction is needed. Note that 53 is an element of the residue class {overscore (9)}={9, 20, 31, 42, 53}.

[0035] In another example, a first correction (Steps 5-8) is used. Addition of {overscore (4)}={4, 15, 26, 37, 48, 59} and {overscore (5)}{5, 16, 27, 38, 49, 60} using incompletely reduced numbers 37 and 49 is carried out as $\begin{matrix} {S = \quad {37 + 49}} & \quad \\ {= \quad 86} & {\quad \left( {c = {1\quad {so}\quad {Step}\quad 4\quad {does}\quad {not}\quad {return}\quad {sum}}} \right)} \\ {= \quad {86 - 64}} & {\quad \left( {{carry}\quad {ignored}\quad {in}\quad {Steps}\quad 5\text{-}7} \right)} \\ {= \quad 22} & \quad \\ {T = \quad {22 + 9}} & {\quad \left( {{apply}\quad {correction}\quad {in}\quad {Steps}\quad 5\text{-}7} \right)} \\ {= \quad 31} & {\quad \left( {c = {0\quad {so}\quad {Step}\quad 8\quad {returns}\quad {sum}}} \right)} \end{matrix}$

[0036] The result is correct because 31 is equivalent to {overscore (9)}={9, 20, 31, 42, 53}.

[0037] In another example, a second correction of Steps 9-12 is used. This second correction is similar to that of Steps 5-8 in that the correction factor F is added to a prior result. The addition of {overscore (6)}={6, 17, 28, 39, 50, 61} and {overscore (7)}={7, 18, 29, 40, 51, 62} using the incompletely reduced numbers 61 and 62 is: $\begin{matrix} {S = \quad {61 + 62}} & \quad \\ {= \quad 123} & {\quad \left( {c = {1\quad {so}\quad {Step}\quad 4\quad {does}\quad {not}\quad {return}\quad {sum}}} \right)} \\ {= \quad {123 - 64}} & {\quad \left( {{ignore}\quad {carry}} \right)} \\ {= \quad 59} & \quad \\ {T = \quad {59 + 9}} & {\quad \left( {{apply}\quad {correction}\quad {in}\quad {Steps}\quad 5\text{-}7} \right)} \\ {= \quad 68} & {\quad \left( {c = {1\quad {so}\quad {Step}\quad 8\quad {does}\quad {not}\quad {return}\quad {sum}}} \right)} \\ {= \quad {68 - 64}} & {\quad \left( {{ignore}\quad {carry}} \right)} \\ {= \quad 4} & \quad \\ {U = \quad {4 + 9}} & {\quad \left( {{apply}\quad {correction}\quad {in}\quad {Steps}\quad 9\text{-}11} \right)} \\ {= \quad 13} & {\quad \left( {{return}\quad {sum}\quad {in}\quad {Step}\quad 12} \right)} \end{matrix}$

[0038] This result is correct since 13 is in an element of the residue set {overscore (2)}={2, 13, 24, 35, 46, 57}.

Modular Subtraction of Incompletely Reduced Numbers

[0039] Modular subtraction can be performed using two's complement arithmetic. Input operands can be in the least positive residues representation and operands are represented as incompletely reduced numbers. For convenience,

(b,S _(i)):=A _(i) −B _(i) −b  (6)

[0040] denotes a word-level subtraction operation in which a one-word number B_(i) and a one-bit borrow-in b are subtracted from a one-word number A_(i) to produce a one-word number S_(i) and a one-bit borrow-out b. The one-bit borrow b is referred to as both a borrow-in and a borrow-out. A representative subtraction method for computing X=A−B (mod p) is summarized in Table 4. TABLE 4 Modular Subtraction Using Incomplete Numbers Inputs: A = (A_(s−1) . . . A₁A₀) and B = (B_(s−1) . . . B₁B₀) Auxiliary: G = (G_(s−1) . . . G₁G₀) and F = (F_(s−1) . . . F₁F₀) Output: X = (X_(s−1) . . . X₁X₀) Step 1: b := 0 Step 2: for i = 0 to s − 1 Step 3: (b, S_(i)) := A_(i) − B_(i) − b Step 4: if b = 0 then return X = (S_(s−1) . . . S₁S₀) Step 5: c := 0 Step 6: for i = 0 to s − 1 Step 7: (c, T_(i)) := S_(i) + G_(i) +c Step 8: if c = 0 then return X = (T_(s−1) . . . T₁T₀) Step 9: c := 0 Step 10: for i = 0 to s − 1 Step 11: (c, U_(i)) := T_(i) + F_(i) + c Step 12: return X = (U_(s−1) . . . U₁U₀)

[0041] If b=0 after Step 4, then the result is positive reduced number. If b=1, then the result is negative, and a two's complement result is obtained as

S:=A−B=A+2^(m) −B.  (7)

[0042] The result S is in the range [0, 2^(m)−1] but is incorrectly reduced, i.e., 2^(m) has been added. This is corrected by adding G=(G_(s-1) . . . G₁G₀), wherein G is a correction factor for subtraction defined as

G=Jp−2^(m),  (8)

[0043] wherein J is the smallest integer that brings G into the range [1, p−1], i.e., J=┌2^(m)/p┐. The sum of the correction factors for addition and subtraction F+G=p because

F+G=2^(m) Ip+Jp−2^(m)=(J−I)p=(┌2^(m) /p┐−└2^(m) /p┘) p=p,  (9)

[0044] so that G=p−F or F=p−G. The result S is corrected to obtain T in Steps 5-8. After the correction of S in Step 8, a further correction is determined as

T=S+G=A+2^(m) −B+Jp−2^(m) =A−B+Jp.  (10)

[0045] Similar to Step 8 of the addition method of Table 3, this correction can cause a carry from operand MSWs, requiring another correction that is performed in Steps 9-11. No further correction is needed after Step 12, since the maximum value S=(2^(m)−1) gives

U≦(2^(m)−1)+G−2^(m) +F=−1+p<2^(m).  (11)

SUBTRACTION EXAMPLES

[0046] Let p=11, k=4, w=3, m=6, s=2, so that G is

G=┌2^(m) /p┐·p−2^(m)=┌2⁶/11┐·11−64=6·11−64=2.  (12)

[0047] Because F+G=p, G can also be obtained as G=p−F=11−9=2. The subtraction operation S:=5−7 is illustrated using the incompletely reduced equivalents 49 and 40 of {overscore (5)} and {overscore (7)}, respectively, wherein {overscore (5)}={5, 16, 27, 38, 49, 60} and {overscore (7)}={7, 18, 29, 40, 51, 62}. $\begin{matrix} {S = \quad {49 - 29}} & \quad \\ {= \quad 20} & {\quad \left( {b = {0\quad {return}\quad {Step}\quad 4}} \right)} \end{matrix}$

[0048] This result is correct since 20 is an incompletely reduced number in the residue class {overscore (9)}={9, 20, 31, 42, 53} and 5−7=−2=9 (mod 11).

[0049] The same subtraction operation S:=5−7 using the incompletely reduced equivalents 16 and 40 is performed as $\begin{matrix} {S = \quad {16 - 40}} & \quad \\ {= \quad {- 24}} & {\quad \left( {b = {1\quad {so}\quad {Step}\quad 4\quad {does}\quad {not}\quad {return}\quad {difference}}} \right)} \\ {= \quad {64 - 24}} & {\quad \left( {{{two}'}s\quad {complement}\quad {Step}\quad 4} \right)} \\ {= \quad 40} & \quad \\ {T = \quad {40 + 2}} & {\quad \left( {{apply}\quad {correction}\quad {Steps}\quad 5\text{-}8} \right)} \\ {= \quad 42} & {\quad \left( {c = {0\quad {so}\quad {return}\quad {difference}\quad {in}\quad {Step}\quad 8}} \right)} \end{matrix}$

[0050] The incompletely reduced number 42 is also correct because 42 is an element of the residue class {overscore (9)}={9, 20, 31, 42, 53}.

[0051] In another example, the correction (Steps 9-12) is used. The residue classes associated with 5 and 6 are {overscore (5)}={5, 16, 27, 38, 49, 60} and {overscore (6)}={6, 17, 28, 39, 50, 61}, respectively. The subtraction operation 5−6 is performed using incompletely reduced numbers 49 and 50: $\begin{matrix} {S = \quad {49 - 50}} & \quad \\ {= \quad {- 1}} & {\quad \left( {b = {1\quad {so}\quad {Step}\quad 4\quad {does}\quad {not}\quad {return}\quad {difference}}} \right)} \\ {= \quad {64 - 1}} & {\quad \left( {{{two}'}s\quad {complement}\quad {Step}\quad 4} \right)} \\ {= \quad 63} & \quad \\ {T = \quad {63 + 2}} & {\quad \left( {{apply}\quad {corrcetion}\quad {Steps}\quad 5\text{-}8} \right)} \\ {= \quad 65} & {\quad \left( {c = {1\quad {so}\quad {Step}\quad 8\quad {does}\quad {not}\quad {return}\quad {difference}}} \right)} \\ {= \quad {65 - 64}} & {\quad \left( {{ignore}\quad {carry}\quad {Step}\quad 8} \right)} \\ {= \quad 1} & \quad \\ {U = \quad {1 + 9}} & {\quad \left( {{apply}\quad {correction}\quad {Steps}\quad 9\text{-}11} \right)} \\ {= \quad 10} & {\quad \left( {{return}\quad {difference}\quad {in}\quad {Step}\quad 12} \right)} \end{matrix}$

[0052] The result is correct because 10=−1 (mod 11).

Montgomery Modular Multiplication

[0053] Modular multiplication of operands A and B to obtain a product C:=AB (mod p), typically requires reduction operations to reduce the product AB by multiples of the modulus p. Reduction operations typically use bit-level shift-subtract operations, but word-level operations are generally more efficient. Reduction operations can be avoided using so-called Montgomery modular multiplication that is described in, for example, P. L. Montgomery, “Modular Multiplication without Trial Division,” Mathematics of Computation 44:519-521 (1985). A Montgomery product of operands A, B is defined as:

T:=ABR⁻¹ (mod p),  (13)

[0054] wherein R is an integer such that gcd(R,p)=1. Generally R is selected as the smallest power of 2 that is larger than p, i.e., R=2^(k), wherein k=┌log₂p┐. Thus, 1<p<R and 2p>R. If k is not an integer multiple of the word-length w, then bit-level operations can be necessary. Bit-level operations can be avoided with R=2^(m), wherein m=sw.

[0055] According to a representative method, a Montgomery multiplication method uses incompletely reduced numbers. Operands A and B that are in the range [0, 2^(m)−1], are processed to obtain an incompletely reduced result T, also in the range [0, 2^(m)−1]. T is obtained based on Equation (13). Montgomery multiplication computes the result T based on $\begin{matrix} {{T = \frac{{AB} + {p\left( {{ABp}^{\prime}{mod}\quad R} \right)}}{R}},} & (14) \end{matrix}$

[0056] wherein p′ is selected such that

RR ⁻¹ −pp′=1,  (15)

[0057] and R⁻¹ is a modular multiplicative inverse of R. Incomplete Montgomery multiplication is performed by receiving operands A, B that are in the range [0, R−1] and computing a result T according to Equation (14). Because A, B<R, the maximum value of T is $\begin{matrix} {\frac{{\left( {R - 1} \right)\left( {R - 1} \right)} + {p\left( {R - 1} \right)}}{R} = {\frac{\left( {R - 1} \right)\left( {R - 1 + p} \right)}{R} < {R - 1 + {p.}}}} & (16) \end{matrix}$

[0058] Therefore, T can exceed R only by an additive factor p, so that a single subtraction of p can return T to the range [0, R−1].

[0059] A word-level description of Montgomery multiplication can be described based on a word-level multiplication operation written as

(c,T ₃):=T _(j) +A _(i) ·B _(j) +c,  (17)

[0060] in which a new value of T_(j) and a new carry word c are computed using a previous value of T_(j), 1-word operands A_(i), B_(j), and a carry word c. The quantities A_(i), B_(j), T_(j), c are one-word numbers in the range [0, 2^(w)−1]. Because

(2^(w)−1)+(2^(w)−1)·(2^(w)−1)+(2^(w)−1)=(2^(w)−1)(2^(w)+1)=2^(2w)−1,  (18)

[0061] the result of the operation in (17) is a 2-word number represented using the 1-word numbers T_(j) and c.

[0062] Various implementations of Montgomery multiplication are described in, for example, C. K. Koc et al., “Analyzing and Comparing Montgomery Multiplication Algorithms,” IEEE Micro 16:26-33 (1996). An algorithm that computes T using a least significant word of p′ defined by Equation (15) is presented below. Since R=2^(sw), Equation (15) can be reduced modulo 2^(w) to obtain

−pp′=1 (mod 2^(w))  (19)

[0063] Let P₀ and Q₀ be the LSWs of p and p′, respectively. Then, Q₀ is a negative of the multiplicative inverse of the LSW of p modulo 2^(w), i.e.,

Q ₀ =−P ₀ ⁻¹ (mod 2^(w)).  (20)

[0064] This one-word number can be computed very quickly using a variation of the extended Euclidean algorithm given in S. R. Dusse and B. S. Kaliski, “A Cryptographic Library for the Motorola DSP56000,” in Lecture Notes in Computer Science, vol. 473 (Springer Verlag, 1990). A Montgomery multiplication method for computing T=AB2^(−m) (mod p) using Q₀ is summarized in Table 5. TABLE 5 Montgomery Modular Multiplication Using Incompletely Reduced Numbers Inputs: A = (A_(s−1) . . . A₁A₀) and B = (B_(s−1) . . . B₁B₀) Auxiliary: Q₀ and p = (P_(s−1) . . . P₁P₀) Output: T = (T_(s−1) . . . T₁T₀) Step 1: for j = 0 to s − 1 Step 2: T_(j) := 0 Step 3: for i = 0 to s − 1 Step 4: c := 0 Step 5: for j = 0 to s − 1 Step 6: (c, T_(j)) := T_(j) + A_(i) · B_(j) +c Step 7: T_(s) := c Step 8: M := T₀ · Q₀ (mod 2^(w)) Step 9: c := (T₀ + M · P₀)/2^(w) Step 10: for j = 1 to s − 1 Step 11: (c, T_(j−1)) := T_(j) + M · P_(j) + c Step 12: (c, T_(s−1)) := T_(s) +c Step 13: if c = 0 return T = (T_(s−1) . . . T₁T₀) Step 14: b := 0 Step 15: for j = 0 to s − 1 Step 16: (b, T_(j)) := T_(j) − P_(j) − b Step 17: return T = (T_(s−1) . . . T₁T₀)

[0065] In Steps 1 and 2, words of the result T are assigned zero values. The final result T=AB2^(−m) (mod p) is stored as s-words. An initial multiplication loop (Steps 3-7) computes a partial product T of length s+1. For i=0, T:=A₀·B. Because A₀∈[0, 2^(w−1)] and B ∈[0, 2^(m−1)], then

T≦2^(w−1)·2^(m−1)=2^(w−1)·2^(sw−1)=2^((s+1)w−2).

[0066] In Steps 8-12, T is reduced modulo-p so that T is s words long. This is accomplished using the following substeps. First, in Step 8, the LSW of T is multiplied by Q₀ modulo 2^(w). Q₀ is the LSW of p′ and is equal to −P₀ ⁻¹ (mod 2^(w)). Thus, a one-word number M is

M:=T ₀ ·Q ₀ =T ₀·(−P ₀ ⁻¹)=−T ₀ P ₀ ⁻¹ (mod 2^(w)).

[0067] In Step 9, T₀+M·P₀ is computed and is equal to

X:=T ₀ +M·P ₀ :=T ₀+(−T ₀ P ₀ ⁻¹)P ₀.

[0068] Note that X is a 2-word number, however, the LSW of X is zero since

T ₀+(−T ₀ P ₀ ⁻¹)P ₀=0 (mod 2^(w)).

[0069] Therefore, after division by 2^(w) in Step 9, a 1-word carry c from the computation T₀+M·P₀ is obtained. In Steps 10-12, computation of T+M·P is completed. Since the LSW of the result is zero, the result is shifted by 1 word to the right (towards the least significant bit) in order to obtain the s-word number given by Equation (14).

[0070] According to Equation (16), the result computed at the end of Step 12 can exceed R−1 by at most p, and thus, a single subtraction can return the result to the range [0, R−1]. In Step 13, the value of the carry is checked. If the carry is 1, T exceeds R−1. If the carry is 0, then the result T is returned in Step 13 as the final product. Otherwise, a subtraction T:=T−p is performed to return T to the range [0, R−1]. The subtraction operation is accomplished in Steps 14-16, and the final product is returned in Step 17.

[0071] Therefore, this Montgomery modular multiplication method works even if the modulus R=2^(sw) is much larger than p, i.e., it need not be the smallest number of the form 2^(i) which is larger than p. While there may be several correction steps needed in the addition and subtraction operations, a single subtraction operation is sufficient for computing the Montgomery product T=AB2^(−sw) (mod p).

[0072] One important difference between incomplete and complete Montgomery multiplication pertains to the manner in which the input and output operands are specified. The radix R in complete Montgomery multiplication is R=2^(k), while incomplete Montgomery multiplication uses the value 2^(sw), and avoids bit-level operations, even if k is not an integer multiple of w. Complete Montgomery multiplication requires that input operands be complete, i.e., numbers in the range [0, p−1], while the incomplete Montgomery multiplication algorithm requires that input operands be in the range [0, 2^(m)−1]. Complete Montgomery multiplication computes a final result as a completely reduced number, i.e., a number in the range [0, p−1], while incomplete Montgomery multiplication computes the result in the range [0, 2^(m)−1].

MULTIPLICATION EXAMPLES

[0073] Let p=53, k=4, w=3, m=6, and s=2. Since p=53=(110101) and P₀=(101)=5, Q₀=−P₀ ⁻¹ (mod 2^(w)) is

Q ₀=5⁻¹ (mod 8)=−5=3,

[0074] and R=2^(m)=2⁶=64. These values are used to describe two representative examples. In a first example, a product of operands of {overscore (5)}={5, 58} and {overscore (7)}={7, 60} using the incompletely reduced numbers 58 and 60 is obtained. With A=58=(111 010) and B=60=(111 100), e T=A·B·R⁻¹ (mod p) is determined according to the method of Table 5 as follows: TABLE 6 Montgomery Multiplication of the Incompletely Reduced Numbers 58 and 60. Step 3: i = 0 Step 4, 5, 6 and j = 0: (c, T₀) := A₀ · B₀ = 2 · 4 = 8 = (001 000). Step 5, 6 and j = 1: (c, T₁) := A₀ · B₁ + c = 2 · 7 + 1 = 15 = (001 111). Step 7: T₂ = c = 1 so that T = (001 111 000) Step 8: M = T₀ · Q₀ = 0 · 3 (mod 8) = 0. Step 9: c = (T₀ + M · P₀)/8 = (0 + 0 · 5)/8 = 0. Step 10, 11 and j = 1: (c, T₀) = T₁ + M · P₁ + c = 7 + 0 · 6 + 0 = 7 = (000 111). Step 12: (c, T₁) = T₂ + c = 1 + 0 = 1 = (000 001) so that T = (001 111). Step 3: i = 1 Step 4, 5, 6 and j = 0: (c, T₀) := T₀ + A₁ · B₀ = 7 + 7 · 4 = 35 = (100 011). Step 5, 6 and j = 1: (c, T₁) := T₁ + A₁ · B₁ + c = 1 + 7 · 7 + 4 = 54 = (110 110). Step 7: T₂ = c = 6 so that T = (110 110 011). Step 8: M = T₀ · Q₀ = 3 · 3 (mod 8) = 1. Step 9: c = (T₀ + M · P₀)/8 = (3 + 1 · 5)/8 = 1. Step 10, 11 and j = 1: (c, T₀) = T₁ + M · P₁ + c = 6 + 1 · 6 + 1 = 13 = (001 101). Step 12: (c, T₁) = T₂ + c = 6 + 1 = 7 = (000 111) and T = (111 101). Step 13: Since c = 0, return T = (111 101).

[0075] The result is the incomplete number T=(111 101)=61. A corresponding complete number is 8 that is equal to 5·7·64⁻¹ (mod 53).

[0076] In a second example, a product of {overscore (8)}={8, 61} and {overscore (10)}={10, 63} using the incompletely reduced numbers 61 and 63 is obtained. With A=61=(111 101) and B=63=(111 111), T=A·B·R⁻¹ (mod p) is determined using the method of Table 5 including subtraction steps (Steps 14-17). The second example is summarized in Table 7. TABLE 7 Montgomery Multiplication of the Incompletely Reduced Numbers 61 and 63. Step 3: i = 0 Step 4, 5, 6 and j = 0: (c, T₀) := A₀ · B₀ = 5 · 7 = 35 = (100 011). Step 5, 6 and j = 1: (c, T₁) := A₀ · B₁ + c = 5 · 7 + 4 = 39 = (100 111). Step 7: T₂ = c = 4 so that T = (100 111 011) Step 8: M = T₀ · Q₀ = 3 · 3 (mod 8) = 1. Step 9: c = (T₀ + M · P₀)/8 = (3 + 1 · 5)/8 = 1. Step 10, 11 and j = 1: (c, T₀) = T₁ + M · P₁ + c = 7 + 1 · 6 + 1 = 14 = (001 110). Step 12: (c, T₁) = T₂ + c = 4 + 1 = 5 = (000 101) and T = (101 110). Step 3: i = 1 Step 4, 5, 6 and j = 0: (c, T₀) := T₀ + A₁ · B₀ = 6 + 7 · 7 = 55 = (110 111). Step 5, 6 and j = 1: (c, T₁) := T₁ + A₁ · B₁ + c = 5 + 7 · 7 + 6 = 60 = (111 100). Step 7: T₂ = c = 6 and T = (110 110 011). Step 8: M = T₀ · Q₀ = 7 · 3 (mod 8) = 5. Step 9: c = (T₀ + M · P₀)/8 = (7 + 5 · 5)/8 = 4. Step 10, 11 and j = 1: (c, T₀) = T₁ + M · P₁ + c = 4 + 5 · 6 + 4 = 38 = (100 110). Step 12: (c, T₁) = T₂ + c = 7 + 4 = 11 = (001 011). Step 13: Since c = 1, execute the subtraction steps below. Step 14: b = 0. Step 15, 16 and j = 0: (b, T₀) = T₀ − P₀ − b = 6 − 5 − 0 = 1 = (000 001). Step 15, 16 and j = 1: (b, T₁) = T₁ − P₁ − b = 3 − 6 − 0 = −3 (mod 8) = 5(000 101). Step 17: Return T = (101 001) = 41.

[0077] The result is the completely reduced number T=(101 001)=41 that corresponds to 8·10·64⁻¹ (mod 53).

[0078] Incomplete addition, subtraction, and Montgomery multiplication methods have been implemented in C-language instructions for use on a 450-MHz Pentium II computer with 256 megabytes of memory and a WINDOWS NT operating system. For comparison, conventional (complete) operations were also implemented and execution times and speed-up for incomplete and complete operations are summarized in Table 8. Speed-up is calculated by subtracting the incomplete execution time from the complete execution time and dividing by the complete execution time. As can be seen from Table 5, incomplete addition is 34%-43% faster than complete addition in the range of k from 161 to 256. Similarly, incomplete subtraction is 17%-23% faster than complete subtraction. The speed-up of the incomplete subtraction is less than that for incomplete addition due to the number of correction steps used in subtraction. Only a 3%-5% speed-up is obtained for incomplete Montgomery multiplication since incomplete and complete Montgomery have similar numbers of steps. Table 8. Execution times (in μsec) and speed-up (%) for incomplete and complete arithmetic operations. Addition Subtraction Multiplication κ Complete Incomplete % Complete Incomplete % Complete Incomplete % 161 1.85 1.11 40 1.43 1.10 23 4.80 4.58 5 176 1.90 1.11 42 1.38 1.10 20 4.74 4.57 4 192 2.00 1.26 37 1.38 1.04 25 4.79 4.62 4 193 1.98 1.23 38 1.47 1.20 18 6.36 6.17 3 208 2.14 1.22 43 1.46 1.19 18 6.40 6.13 4 224 2.03 1.28 37 1.45 1.16 20 6.35 6.17 3 225 2.20 1.30 41 1.58 1.29 18 8.06 7.73 4 240 2.23 1.32 41 1.53 1.27 17 8.03 7.74 4 256 2.31 1.52 34 1.53 1.27 17 8.02 7.76 3

[0079] In addition to the above examples, ECDSA over the finite field GF(p) as described in, for example, National Institute for Standards and Technology, “Digital Signature Standard (DSS),” FIPS Pub. 186-2 (2000), has been implemented to estimate performance improvements achievable with incomplete arithmetic. Execution times (in msec) for the ECDSA signature generation operation are listed in Table 9. These times were obtained without precomputation of any values. ECDSA code was executed several hundred times using two different random elliptic curve sets for bit lengths as specified in Table 9. The implementation results show that the ECDSA algorithm can be executed 10%-13% faster using incomplete modular arithmetic. Coupled with some machine-level programming, the ECDSA algorithm can be made even faster, as shown in the last column of Table 9. TABLE 9 Signature generation times (in msec) for ECDSA over GF(p). C code only C + Assembly k Complete Incomplete % Incomplete 161 13.6 12.0 12 5.3 176 14.8 12.9 13 5.8 192 16.5 14.7 11 6.6 193 20.8 18.4 12 8.5 208 22.6 19.7 13 9.1 224 23.7 21.1 11 9.7 225 29.8 26.5 11 12.2 240 31.1 27.9 10 12.8 256 34.2 30.8 10 14.0

[0080] Improved cryptographic methods and apparatus based on incomplete arithmetic include cryptographic systems and software modules that determine cryptographic parameters and, for example, produce ciphertext from plaintext or recover plaintext from ciphertext. Similar operations are also used in digital signature authentication and production and other security applications. In a particular application, one or more of the incomplete arithmetic methods operations can be implemented as a series of computer-readable instructions for execution with a general purpose computer or application-specific processor. Such methods and apparatus can include one or more of the incomplete arithmetic operations.

[0081] The arithmetic methods described above can be applied to cryptographic parameters such as public keys, private keys, ciphertext, plaintext, digital signatures, and other parameters and combinations of parameters.

[0082] With reference to FIG. 1, a financial transaction apparatus 100 includes customer input 105 configured to receive customer data such as customer identification parameters and one or more customer security codes. The apparatus 100 also includes a processing unit 110 that receives customer parameters and codes, and processes at least one of the codes to authenticate the customer identification. An arithmetic module 115, under control of the processing unit 110, is used to perform at least some steps of authentication. The module 115 is configured to execute word by word (word-wise) arithmetic using incompletely reduced numbers. Such a module is referred to as a word-wise, incomplete arithmetic unit. In some examples, a general purpose computer executes modular arithmetic operations using instructions stored in a computer readable medium such as a hard disk, floppy disk, CD-ROM, or in a volatile or non-volatile memory. Upon authenticating the customer codes, the apparatus responds to transaction requests provided to the input 105 or otherwise provided.

[0083] Other apparatus and applications having a modular arithmetic component include encryption systems, decryption systems, digital signature systems, and data verification systems. Some specific examples are transaction servers and systems for processing and retrieval of sensitive information such as patient medical records, customer data, vendor data, and other personal or financial data. Representative apparatus that include such arithmetic processing are SmartCards, cell phones, and servers, including servers for Internet-based applications. The incomplete arithmetic methods and apparatus provide rapid execution using simple processors and have modest storage requirements and are therefore suited for power and cost sensitive applications. Because the methods and apparatus provide rapid execution, they are suitable for applications requiring processing of numerous transactions. In addition, because the methods are scalable, they are readily adapted for variable cryptographic parameter sizes, such as increasing bit lengths for keys.

[0084] While the invention has been described with reference to several examples, it will be apparent to those skilled in the art that these examples can be modified in arrangement and detail. We claim all that is encompassed by the appended claims. 

What is claimed is:
 1. A method of performing modular arithmetic with respect to a modulus p, comprising: representing operands A, B as respective series of s w-bit words; performing at least one of the operations of addition, subtraction, and multiplication based on the series of words of the operands to obtain a result C; and reducing the result C so that C is less than or equal to p−1 and greater than or equal to
 0. 2. A computer readable medium containing instructions for performing the method of claim
 1. 3. The method of claim 1, further comprising: defining a set of incompletely reduced numbers based on the word size w and the modulus p; and performing the operation so that intermediate values used to obtain the result C are incompletely reduced numbers.
 4. A modular addition method, comprising: representing a first operand and a second operand as a first and a second series of words, respectively, wherein the first and the second operands have the same or different values; performing a series of word additions between corresponding words of the first and second operands to obtain a first intermediate sum; evaluating a carry value associated with a sum of most significant words of the operands; and based on the evaluation of the carry value, adding a correction factor for addition to the first intermediate sum to produce a second intermediate sum.
 5. The method of claim 4, further comprising representing the correction factor for addition as a series of words, wherein the step of adding the correction factor to the first intermediate sum is performed word by word.
 6. The method of claim 5, wherein the correction factor for addition is F=2^(m)−Ip, wherein m is a maximum number of bits in the words that represent the operands, and I is a largest integer such that F is between 1 and p−1.
 7. The method of claim 5, further comprising: evaluating a carry value associated with a sum of most significant words of the first intermediate sum and the correction factor; and adding the correction factor for addition to the second intermediate sum based on the evaluation.
 8. A computer readable medium containing computer executable instructions for performing the method of claim
 7. 9. A method of performing modular subtraction with respect to a modulus p, comprising representing a first operand and a second operand as a first and a second series of words, respectively, wherein the first and the second operands have the same or different values; performing a series of word subtractions between corresponding words of the first and second operands to obtain a first intermediate difference; evaluating borrow value associated with a difference of most significant words of the operands; and adding a correction factor for subtraction to the first intermediate difference based on the evaluation of the borrow value to produce a second intermediate difference.
 10. The method of claim 9, wherein the correction factor for subtraction is G=Jp−2^(m), wherein m is a maximum number of bits used to represent an operand and J is a smallest integer such that G is between 1 and p−1.
 11. A method of Montgomery multiplication, comprising: representing a first operand and a second operand as a first series and a second series of s w-bit words, respectively; selecting a Montgomery radix R=2^(sw); and multiplying corresponding words of the first and second operands to form word products; and processing the word products to obtain a Montgomery product.
 12. A transaction server, comprising: an input configured to receive an authentication code; and a processor configured to receive and confirm the authentication code, the processor including a word-wise, incomplete modular arithmetic module.
 13. The transaction server of claim 12, wherein the arithmetic module includes computer executable instructions stored in a computer readable medium.
 14. The transaction server of claim 12, where the processor is configured to process words of length w, and the arithmetic module is configured based on the word length w.
 15. The transaction server of claim 12, wherein the arithmetic module is configured to perform arithmetic modulo a prime number p and the arithmetic module is configured to process operands represented as s w-bit words, wherein $s = {\left\lceil \frac{k}{w} \right\rceil.}$


16. The transaction server of claim 15, wherein the arithmetic module includes memory configured for storage of a correction factor for addition.
 17. A cryptographic system, comprising a processor that includes a word-wise, incompletely-reduced-number arithmetic module.
 18. The cryptographic system of claim 17, wherein the arithmetic module is configured to process a cryptographic parameter using addition modulo-p, wherein p is a prime number.
 19. The cryptographic system of claim 17, wherein the arithmetic module is configured to process a cryptographic parameter using subtraction modulo-p, wherein p is a prime number.
 20. The method of claim 17, wherein the arithmetic module is configured to process a cryptographic parameter using Montgomery multiplication with respect to a modulus p, wherein p is a prime number.
 21. A method of processing a security parameter with respect to a modulus p, the method comprising: representing the security parameter as a series of s w-bit words; processing the security parameter word by word to produce a processed value, wherein the processed value is between 0 and 2^(sw)−1; and producing an output by combining the processed value with a correction factor.
 22. A scalable method of processing a cryptographic parameter, comprising: selecting a word length w; selecting a modulus p; representing the cryptographic parameter as a series of s w-bit words, wherein ${s = \left\lceil \frac{k}{w} \right\rceil};$

and processing the cryptographic parameter word by word to produce an intermediate value that is represented as an incompletely reduced number.
 23. The method of claim 22, further comprising: evaluating a carry or borrow value produced with a most significant word of the cryptographic parameter; and applying a correction factor based on the carry or borrow value. 